Material Science
Tungsten has the highest tensile strength of any pure metal, at up to 500,000 psi at room temperature. Tungsten has the strongest known metal bond and the highest melting point of all metals. But that does not make it ideal for building buildings. The structural building properties of metals are based on other characteristics. Tempered piano wire with a tensile strength of 2000 MPa has a higher tensile strength than tungsten and weighs less than half as much. A 100 lb steel cable of this material will hold nearly 3 times the load of a 100 lb tungsten cable of the same length. If the previous example were to be seen in the context of a fire, the tungsten cable would still support the load after the steel cable had snapped from the heat.
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength, compared to steel, which has high tension. Steel has a density ranging from 7,750 to 8,050 kg/cubic meter.
The exotic metal carbides (such as tantalum hafnium carbide) have the highest known normal boiling points and heats of vaporization. Tungsten carbide is possibly the highest of commonly manufactured substances. However, there are other factors to consider when making high speed drill bits and saw blades other than the enthalpy of vaporization.
Ice at colder temperatures
The tensile strength of ice varies from .7 – 3.1 MPa, and the compressive strength 5 – 25 MPa over the temperature range -10 to -20 C. From 0 C to -40 C, the compressive strength of ice increased by about 4, whereas for tensile strength, by 1.3.
Concrete and cement.
Cement is an ingredient of concrete. Cement makes up 10-15% of concrete mix, by volume. Concrete is basically a mixture of aggregates (of sand and gravel or crushed stone) and paste (water and Portland cement). Portland cement is not a brand name, but a generic name now. Through a process called hydration, cement and water harden and bind the aggregates into a rock-like mass. This hardening process continues for years, meaning the concrete gets stronger as it gets older.
So, there is no such thing as a cement sidewalk or cement mixer, only concrete sidewalk and concrete mixer.
The hydration process: concrete hardens as a result of hydration. Temperature of new concrete should not fall below 50 F (10 C) during the current period, of 5-7 days.
Conventional concrete has a strength of 7,000 psi or less. Between 7,000 psi and 14,500 psi, are considered high-strengths concrete. Most acids can have a deteriorating effect on concrete.
To remove blood stains from concrete, wet the stains with water and cover them with a layer of sodium peroxide powder; let stand for a few minutes, rinse with water and scrub vigorously. Follow with the application of a 5% solution of vinegar to neutralize any remaining sodium peroxide.
UV radiation.
White sand reflects about 15% UV, snow as much as 80%. For every 1000 meters above sea level, UV increases about 2%. Being closer to the Equator also has more UV.
The Russian-Ukraine war and how that can affect the economy.
How does Boeing make airplanes? From aluminum and titanium, and about 40% of that comes from Russia.