Computers: Research Trivia

Note: for smartphone users, that are using Google Chrome. If you want to "up 1 folder," and tapping on the url completely wipes the url. Then tap on the pencil icon to the lower right of it, then the url is back.

Tip: a lot of professional people don't seem to know the difference between reply and forward, when it comes to image attachments. Hitting the reply button does not carry-over image attachments. So if someone sent you an e-mail with images in it, and you click reply and added new people, the new people will not be able to see the images, even if it was pasted in between paragraphs, unless you hit the forward button.

1. Cryptography: for a platform like Facebook (which is now renamed Meta), can they know if 2 accounts have the same password, without knowing what the password is?

So in the old days, if you lost your password, the system can e-mail you back your password. The downfall to that is the system administrators can directly see your password, which is a bundle if you use the same password to multiple platforms. Now, due to encryption (such as Md5), they can reset it.

The answer is, is if they salt the password or not. Salting is adding another set of random characters to your password, and with a different hashing algorithm. (If they did not salt the passwords, then they can see 2 passwords produced the same hash, without knowing what that password is.).

2. Today, if you Google'd pizza restaurants, it won't be about pizza restaurants in general, but about pizza restaurants in your municipal area. So, people Googling pizza restaurants in New York and London, will get very different results. And while Google started on Sept. 4, 1998, how far back in time does 1 have to go where Googling "pizza restaurant" would return pizza restaurants in general, rather than by geo-IP?

There's 2 answers to that. The 1st is Google does not publish their search algorithms so that information is proprietary, you would have to ask a senior Google administrator. The 2nd answer is, this geo-IP technology pre-dates the Internet, which means it could have been that way since the beginning.

3. Website design: can you have it where if someone presses the PrintScreen button, the website prevents that from happening?

No, those buttons are not a browser feature, but an operating system procedure. You could however, make a popup window that says "You have pressed the PrintScreen button." We currently have that on our main page.

4. What is it called where a system allows you to log in from 2 or more computers at the same time, vs. where it forces you to log off the 1st account, when you log in on a 2nd computer?

Multi-session vs. single-session.

5. SEO: If I have a website www. domain-name. com/PageFile, and create a new domain name www. PageFile .com, and just use it as a forward or redirect to that page, will that affect it's place in Google search?

The answer appears to be yes. The .com / net / or org are called tlds.

6. Where in the computers world can you have underlined text, where the color of the underline, and color of the text, are different colors? Can that be done in Microsoft Word, and HTML? What platforms and what website languages can allow for that?

This was not possible in IRC chatrooms, as well as WordPad, but is possible in Microsoft Word and CSS.

It also appears ChatGPT made an error by saying this is now possible on WordPad starting in Windows 10 version, which was released on July 29, 2015. However, I tested from copy pasting colored underlined text from Word to WordPad, where the feature was lost. That is, the color of the underline, became the color of the text.

7. When you type in something in a web page input forms, and hit submit, it takes you to the next page. If you click back, the text you typed is retrieved. Then, where is that text stored? If your computer shuts down, and you reopen the browser, and go to view all the last pages, can that text still be retrieved? (Does it depend on the browser?)

Depends on the browser and operating system. We have a term for anything that is lost when the computer shuts down - called volatile. A good tip to prevent the loss of volatile text, many times before I hit the final submit button (like in an e-mail), I highlight the entire text and copy it (or paste it somewhere). However, when platforms like Microsoft Word has auto-save, you can type something there 1st, then paste it in a final page before submitting/entering.

8. Why are some IP address are just digits, separated by periods, while others can have letters? (Such as 170.76.231.162, and 2601:249:8200:A640:6192:535F:DD86:406C).

Those are 2 different versions, the older IPv4 and the newer IPv6. IPv4 uses 32-bit address space, where the numbers in between periods don't exceed 255, while IPv6 uses 128-bit address space, which uses hexadecimal. IPv6 is slowly replacing IPv4 addresses.

The localhost equivalent of 127.0.0.1 for IPv6 is ::1. Localhost is also called loopback address.

9. How do computers work?

A computer's hard drive is made up of metal platters divided into zones whose molecules have their magnetic fields somewhat aligned in 1 of 2 possible directions. Spinning hard disks uses magnetic orientation to encode 1 / 0 patterns, whereas solid state drives uses electric charges to encode the 1 / 0 patterns. The bits are flipped via transistors, and bits can be flipped from radioactive atoms and cosmic radiation passing through a transistor.

The motherboard translates machine language. The motherboard is the piece of the computer that all the main pieces connect to. The CPU, RAM, video card, and other components all connect to the motherboard.

How fast a computer performs, is measured by the gigahertz of the processor. The clock speed, like bandwidth and cache, is a specification of the CPU.

Perhaps the most common action performed in a computer is just copying data from a SSD (solid-state drive) to a DRAM (dynamic random-access memory). The CPU manages the flow of data from the SSD to DRAM, as well as DRAM to cache memory.

IBM wrote the 1st BIOS chip, 1981, then others get IBM assembler codes, downloaded the bits. Xerox was the 1st company to have a graphical operating system in the 1970s (but it was never sold commercially, but used internally at Xerox and by a few of its research partners). The 1st commercially successful graphical operating system was Apple's Macintosh System 1, released 1984.

The origin of Microsoft Windows, is in the mid-1980s when Microsoft and IBM cooperated to develope the OS/2 operating system, which was written in assembly language for single-processor Intel 80286 systems. It was under the leadership of IBM software designer Ed Iacobucci, and 1st released in Dec. 1987. But in 1988, Microsoft decided to end the joint effort and develope its own NT (New Technology) portable OS (operating system) to support both OS/2 and POSIX application-programming interface (APIs). In Oct. 1988, Dave Cutler, whom was the architect of the DEC VAX/VMS OS, was hired to direct building Microsoft's new OS. In 1992, OS/2 development fell exclusively to IBM, as a result of a feud between the 2 companies over how to position it relative to Microsoft's new Windows 3.1 operating environment.

Linux started in 1991, when a Finnish student named Linus Torvalds wrote Linux, a small kernel for the 80386 processor, the 1st true 32-bit processor in Intel's range of PC-compatible CPUs.

10. How were the early computers made?

The 1st electronic computers were developed during the 1940s and used vacuum tubes to perform calculations. These computers were huge, took up entire rooms, and were extremely expensive to build and maintain. They were also very slow compared to modern computers, and could only perform simple arithmetic and logic operations.

The development of the integrated circuit in the late 1950s and early 1960s revolutionized computer technology. Integrated circuits allowed for the creation of smaller, more powerful computers that were more affordable and easier to maintain. The size and cost of computers continued to decrease over time as more advanced technologies were developed, such as the microprocessor, which allowed for the creation of the first personal computers in the 1970s.

Integrated circuit.

An integrated circuit (IC), also known as a microchip, is a tiny electronic circuit that is made up of miniature electronic components such as transistors, capacitors, and resistors. These components are etched onto a tiny piece of semiconductor material (usually silicon) to form a complete electronic circuit. The miniaturization of electronic components and the ability to etch them onto a semiconductor material paved the way for the development of the first integrated circuits in the late 1950s. The invention of the integrated circuit made it possible to fit thousands or even millions of electronic components onto a single chip, revolutionizing the electronics industry and paving the way for the development of modern computers, smartphones, and other electronic devices.

Microprocessor.

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that contains the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It is a small electronic device that can perform arithmetic and logic operations and can manage data input and output. It is the heart of a computer and is responsible for executing instructions and processing data. Microprocessors are used in a wide range of devices, including personal computers, smartphones, cars, appliances, and industrial machinery.

The 1st microprocessor, the Intel 4004, was introduced in 1971 by Intel and had only 2,300 transistors. It was 4-bit, with a 4-bit data bus and a 12-bit address bus. The world's 1st 8-bit microprocessor, was the Intel 8008, released in 1972. In 1971, Toshiba participated in Ford's Electronic Engine Control (EEC) project and developed the world's 1st 12-bit microprocessor in 1973. The specification of 12 bits was set from the required precision of the analog quantity for engine control, and it was a state-of-the-art product at the time. Today, microprocessors can contain billions of transistors and have revolutionized the field of computing.

A transistor in a CPU can be 12 nm long, with 8 to 10 billion of them in the integrated heat spreader.

AMD released their 1st microprocessor, the Am9080, in 1975, which was 4-bit. But it was not a general-purpose microprocessor like Intel's 4004, it was designed specifically for minicomputers. AMD's 1st general-purpose microprocessor, the Am2900, was released in 1976.

The 2nd company to release the microprocessor, after Intel, was Texas Instruments, the TMX 1795, also in 1971, but for industrial and military applications, not for consumer computers.

11. How are CDs made?

CDs (Compact Discs) are made through a process called replication, a 4-step process.

Glass mastering: A glass disc, called a master, is created with a laser or other tool that etches microscopic pits into its surface in a spiral pattern, representing the digital information that will be stored on the CD.

Electroplating: A thin layer of metal, usually nickel, is coated onto the glass master to create a negative image of the pits and bumps on the disc.

Injection molding: A polycarbonate plastic substrate is created by injecting molten plastic into a mold containing the negative image of the pits and bumps. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened, it is separated from the mold.

Metallization: A thin layer of aluminum is applied to the polycarbonate plastic substrate to create a reflective layer that reflects the laser beam used to read the disc.

12. How is data added to a CD?

Data is added to a CD using a process called burning or and writing. In this process, a laser beam is used to heat a special dye layer on the surface of the disc, causing it to change its reflectivity in a specific pattern. This pattern of pits and lands on the disc represents the digital data that is being stored (the 0s and 1s). The data is written to the disc using a CD writer, which uses the laser beam to heat the dye layer and create the desired pattern.

Network bands.

13. Are the 2 most used frequency for wireless Internet is 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz?

Yes, these frequencies are part of the radio spectrum and are used by Wi-Fi networks to transmit data wirelessly.

The 2.4 GHz frequency band is the older and more widely adopted option. It provides good coverage and can penetrate through walls and other obstacles relatively well. However, it is also more susceptible to interference from other devices like cordless phones, microwaves, and Bluetooth devices that operate on the same frequency.

The 5 GHz frequency band offers higher speeds and less congestion compared to 2.4 GHz. It provides faster data transfer rates and is generally less prone to interference. However, the higher frequency results in slightly reduced coverage range and a lesser ability to penetrate obstacles.

Most modern Wi-Fi routers and devices are dual-band, meaning they support both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies, allowing users to choose the appropriate band based on their specific needs and the surrounding environment.

14. Which frequency is more expensive?

The cost of using a specific frequency for wireless internet is not determined by the frequency itself but rather by the infrastructure and equipment required to support that frequency. The 5 GHz frequency band generally requires more advanced equipment and technology compared to the 2.4 GHz band. This may lead to slightly higher costs for deploying and operating a network that supports 5 GHz.

15. How are IP addresses assigned?

The router acts as the central point that assigns IP addresses to the devices connected to the network. When a device connects to the network, it requests an IP address from the router's DHCP server. The server then assigns a unique IP address from the designated range to each device.

While it is possible to configure the network to assign the same IP address to devices on different frequencies, it is not a common practice. Different IP addresses help distinguish devices, enable efficient network routing, and prevent conflicts in communication. Therefore, in most cases, devices on the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies will have different IP addresses within the same network. In a typical Wi-Fi network setup, the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz frequencies are often treated as separate network bands with their own respective SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers).

16. How did the 5 GHz frequency start?

In the context of Wi-Fi, the 5 GHz frequency band was introduced with the 802.11a standard, ratified by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) in 1999. However, it took some time for consumer devices to support this frequency band and for it to become more widely adopted.

By the early 2000s, consumer-grade Wi-Fi routers and devices supporting the 5 GHz frequency started to become available. Since then, the use of 5 GHz has increased with the introduction of newer Wi-Fi standards like 802.11n, 802.11ac, and 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6). These standards provide faster speeds and improved performance, making the 5 GHz frequency band more attractive for high-bandwidth applications.

The transition from the 900 MHz band to the 2.4 GHz band for Wi-Fi occurred in the late 1990s and early 2000s when the IEEE 802.11b standard, which operates in the 2.4 GHz band, gained popularity. This transition was driven by the need for higher data transfer rates and improved networking capabilities. Since then, the 900 MHz band has been less commonly used for Wi-Fi networking purposes.

17. What is the difference between Gigahertz and Gigaflops, and how are the 2 connected?

Gigahertz is a measure of frequency, specifically 1 billion cycles per second, and refers to the clock speed of a CPU. The clock speed indicates how many cycles a CPU can execute per second.

Gigaflops stands for 1 billion floating-point operations per second. FLOPS (Floating-Point Operations Per Second) is a measure of a computer's ability to perform real number calculations.

For converting the 2, you can estimate the floating-point performance (in FLOPS) from the clock speed (in GHz) if you know additional details about the processor's architecture, such as the number of floating-point operations it can perform per clock cycle and the number of cores.

GFLOPS = Clock speed (GHz) × Operations per Cycle × # of Cores

So if we have a processor with the following specifications:

Clock speed: 3 GHz.
Operations per cycle: 8 (assuming it can perform 8 floating-point operations per cycle using AVX instructions).
Number of cores: 4.

Using the formula, we can estimate the GFLOPS: