Automotive Technology

Electric cars use about 5x more copper than regular cars. Electric cars also require rare-earth metals such as neodymium and dysprosium, which are used in the motors.

Elon Musk dropped the price of Tesla on Jan. 12, 2023, where Model Y saw the biggest drop in %, at 20% cheaper (from $65,990 to $52,990). By June of 2023, Musk had dropped Tesla prices 6x, where the Model Y now starts at $42,500. Then, other EV companies followed. Tesla's only SUV, the Model X, went from $120,990 to $109,990, a 9% drop.

Engine oil: this is the most important oil for a car and is used to lubricate the engine's internal moving parts. It comes in different viscosities depending on the engine's needs, and can be made from mineral oil or synthetic oil.

Transmission oil: used to lubricate the gears in the transmission and ensure that they shift smoothly. It is also available in different viscosities depending on the type of transmission.

Brake fluid: used in hydraulic brake systems to transfer force from the brake pedal to the brakes themselves. It is usually made from glycol or silicone and must have a high boiling point to withstand the heat generated during braking.

Power steering fluid: used to lubricate and cool the components of the power steering system, which allows the driver to steer with less effort. It is typically made from mineral oil or synthetic oil.

Coolant: a mixture of water and antifreeze that is used to regulate the temperature of the engine. It is circulated through the engine block and radiator to prevent overheating and freezing.

Engine oil is the most likely fluid to catch fire in a crash due to its high temperature and flammability.

Engine oil: conventional wisdom held that oil should be changed about every 3,000 miles, but that was based on older oils that didn’t last as long. Modern oils, particularly synthetic oils, tend to last significantly longer than that. The stanard for that is 5,000 to 7,500 miles, or every 6 months, whichever comes 1st.

Transmission oil: Most manufacturers recommend changing the transmission oil every 30,000 to 60,000 miles (48,000 to 96,000 km), but some newer vehicles have longer intervals of up to 100,000 miles (160,000 km).

Brake fluid should be changed every 2 years or every 30,000 miles (48,000 km), whichever comes 1st. If the brake fluid appears discolored or contaminated, it should be changed immediately.

Power steering fluid: the recommended interval varies by manufacturer, but it is generally recommended to change it every 50,000 to 100,000 miles (80,000 to 160,000 km).

Coolant: the recommended interval also varies by manufacturer, but it is generally recommended to change it every 30,000 to 50,000 miles (48,000 to 80,000 km) or every 2 to 3 years. Some newer vehicles have extended intervals of up to 100,000 miles (160,000 km).

A muffler, also known as a silencer, is a component of an internal combustion engine's exhaust system. Its primary function is to reduce the noise generated by the engine's exhaust gases as they are expelled from the engine cylinders.

Mufflers are typically installed in the exhaust system near the rear of the vehicle, between the engine and the tailpipe. They are designed to minimize noise without significantly affecting engine performance or causing excessive backpressure.

The muffler consists of a series of chambers and baffles designed to create a path for the exhaust gases to flow through. These chambers and baffles are strategically shaped and positioned to disrupt and absorb the sound waves produced by the exhaust gases. By creating sound wave reflections and utilizing sound-absorbing materials, the muffler helps reduce the loud and potentially harmful noise produced by the engine.

It's a device that transmits power from the engine to the wheels, allowing the vehicle to change gears and achieve different speeds. It plays a crucial role in controlling the power and torque output of the engine to meet the driving demands.

A torque converter is a fluid coupling device that sits between the engine and the transmission in an automatic transmission system. Its primary function is to transfer power from the engine to the transmission input shaft. It uses fluid dynamics to transmit torque and allows the engine to continue running even when the vehicle is stationary. The torque converter also provides torque multiplication, which helps in launching the vehicle from a standstill and during low-speed acceleration.

Take the Chevrolet Camaro for example, which uses an average 25 miles per gallon for the 4 cylinder, and 16 miles per gallon for 8 cylinder.

However, to complicate things more, fuel efficiency itself has variables. Take the Dodge Caravan, which typically comes with a V6 engine, it uses 17 miles per gallon in the city and 25 mpg on the highway. It ranked #1 on Money's list of cars to avoid, mainly because of poor performance and fuel efficiency.

In 2013, a series of deaths and injuries associated with defective Takata airbag inflators made in their Mexico plant, led Takata to initially recall 3.6 million cars equipped with such airbags. (On June 23, 2014, auto manufacturers BMW, Chrysler, Ford, Honda, Mazda, Nissan, and Toyota announced they were recalling over 3 million vehicles worldwide due to Takata Corporation-made airbags.). Further fatalities caused by the airbags have led the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) to order an ongoing, US-wide recall of more than 42 million cars, the largest automotive recall in U.S. history. As of May 19, 2015, Takata is now responsible for the largest auto recall in history. On January 13, 2017, the U.S. charged 3 Takata executives, Shinichi Tanaka, Hideo Nakajima, and Tsuneo Chikaraishi for Takata's exploding airbags. The company agreed to plead guilty and to pay $1 billion to resolve the investigation, which includes a $25 million fine, $125 million for victim compensation and $850 million to compensate automobile manufacturers. At least 16 deaths are linked to the defective airbags. In June 2017, Takata filed for bankruptcy. It was acquired by Key Safety Systems in April 2018. Takata began making airbags in 1988 and, as of 2014, held 20% of the market.

As of 2017, car manufacturers affected by this recall include Acura, Audi, BMW, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Daimler Trucks North America, Daimler Vans USA LLC, Dodge/Ram, Ferrari, Ford, GMC, Honda, Infiniti, Jaguar, Jeep, Land Rover, Lexus, Lincoln, Mazda, McLaren, Mercedes-Benz, Mercury, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Pontiac, Saab, Saturn, Scion, Subaru, and Toyota.

To talk about chemistry, Takata's airbags originally used sodium azide as propellant for airbag inflators. Then replaced with ammonium nitrate in the 1990s, then replaced with tetrazole. The recall was due to ammoniun nitrate. It was later discovered that certain factors, including long-term exposure to heat and humidity, could degrade the ammonium nitrate propellant, leading to potential safety issues.

There have been several large-scale recalls that did not involve airbags. 1 of the largest non-airbag recalls in U.S. history was the 1981 recall of 21 million Ford vehicles with faulty transmissions. The recall involved a design defect that caused the transmissions to slip out of gear and potentially cause accidents. Another significant non-airbag recall was the 2000 recall of 6.5 million Firestone tires installed on Ford Explorer SUVs. The tires were linked to a high number of accidents and fatalities due to tread separation issues.

9. When Americans buy cars, what % are paid in full and what % are paid via an auto loan?

This image will tell you, with data from 2017 till 2022, according to Statistica.com.

So for new cars, between 83-90% are using loans, and for used cars, about 40-55% are using loans.

Tiremaker Goodyear says for every 10 degrees of increased temperature, tires can increase by as much as 1 to 2 pounds of pressure. Cold weather can also cause tire pressure to fall at a similar rate.

To check the pressure of a tire, use a tire gauge, which measures a tire’s air pressure in pounds per square inch (PSI). Gauges come in 3 types: stick pressure gauges, dial pressure gauges, and digital pressure gauges. All 3 perform the same task, but digital gauges are known to be more accurate and easier to read.

While AAA recommends drivers check their tire pressure around once a month, many cars nowadays are equipped with a tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) which automatically measures pressure and notifies drivers of any changes. Readings that are taken right after a drive could be inaccurate due to heat buildup, expansion and pressure increases. In order to get the most accurate reading during the summer, drivers are advised to let their car rest for at least 4 hours after a drive before taking a reading.

Lamborghinis are high-performance sports cars known for their distinctive design and powerful engines. Ferraris are high-performance sports cars that are known for their speed, style, and luxury. They are considered luxury vehicles and are often associated with speed, style, and status.

There are several different models of Lamborghinis, including the Huracán, Aventador, and Urus. These models vary in size, power, and design, but are all designed for high performance and a luxurious driving experience. There are several different models of Ferrari sports cars, including the F8 Tributo, the 812 Superfast, the Portofino M, and the SF90 Stradale. These cars are designed for high-performance driving and feature powerful engines, aerodynamic designs, and advanced technology.

Lamborghini Urus SUV: starting at $227,000.
Lamborghini Huracan EVO Coupe: starting at $287,400.
Lamborghini Huracan EVO Spyder: starting at $313,500.
Lamborghini Aventador S Coupe: starting at $417,650.
Lamborghini Aventador S Roadster: starting at $460,247.

Ferrari Portofino: starting at $226,500.
Ferrari Roma: starting at $222,620.
Ferrari F8 Tributo: starting at $276,550.
Ferrari 812 Superfast: starting at $377,100.
Ferrari SF90 Stradale: starting at $625,000.

The starting price of the 2021 Bentley Continental GT is around $202,500, while the top-of-the-line Continental GT Mulliner Convertible can cost over $300,000. The 2021 Bentley Bentayga SUV starts at around $177,000, while the Bentayga Speed, the most expensive version of the Bentayga, can cost over $240,000.

Rolls-Royce ranges from several hundred thousand dollars to well over a million dollars. The C8 Corvette starts at $59,995 for the 2021 model year, while the Corvette Convertible's folding hardtop starts at least $67,495.

Lamborghini has already released its 1st hybrid supercar, the Sián, which features a V12 engine combined with a 48-volt electric motor. The electric motor provides additional power and torque, and can also be used to power the car on electric-only mode for short distances.

Ferrari has also announced plans to release hybrid and electric models in the near future. In 2019, Ferrari introduced its 1st hybrid model, the SF90 Stradale, which features a twin-turbo V8 engine combined with 3 electric motors.

Bentley also has a racing history and has competed in various motorsport events, including the 24 Hours of Le Mans. In recent years, the company has expanded its lineup to include hybrid and electric models, reflecting a growing trend towards more sustainable and eco-friendly automobiles.

The Camaro is known for its powerful V8 engines and its aggressive and sporty design. It is typically available in both coupe and convertible body styles, and is marketed as a high-performance sports car that is also suitable for everyday driving. The current Camaro models range from the entry-level 2.0-liter turbocharged 4-cylinder engine to the top-of-the-line supercharged V8 engine producing over 650 horsepower.

As of 2021, the base model Camaro LS starts at around $25,000, while the higher-end Camaro ZL1 can cost upwards of $70,000.

Some of the most popular models in the Maserati lineup include the GranTurismo, Levante, Quattroporte, and Ghibli. Prices for Maserati cars range from around $70,000 for the Ghibli to over $200,000 for the GranTurismo.

Lamborghinis are manufactured by the Italian car company Automobili Lamborghini S.p.A. and have been produced since the 1960s. Ferraris manufactured by the Italian car company Ferrari S.p.A. and have been produced since the 1940s. Bentley is a British luxury car brand founded in 1919. Maserati is an Italian luxury car manufacturer known for producing high-performance sports cars, sedans, and SUVs, founded in 1914.

Rolls-Royce Limited was founded in 1906 in the United Kingdom by Charles Rolls and Henry Royce. Bentley is a British luxury car brand company founded in 1919. BMW bought Rolls-Royce in 1998, after a bidding war with Volkswagen.

Mercedes-Benz is a German luxury automobile brand that produces a wide range of vehicles, including cars, SUVs, and vans, dating back to the early 20th century when the 1st Mercedes and Benz vehicles were developed independently. The 2 companies merged in 1926 to form the Mercedes-Benz brand we know today. The 1st Camaro was introduced in 1966 as a response to the Ford Mustang, and it has since become an iconic American car.

Jeep is a brand of American automobiles that is currently a subsidiary of Stellantis, a multinational automotive company headquartered in Amsterdam, Netherlands. Jeep started off as a separate company, the Willys-Overland Company in 1953, which was later bought by Kaiser Motors and then renamed Kaiser Jeep Corporation in 1963, then acquired by American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1970. Chrysler acquired AMC in 1987 and took control of the Jeep brand. Stellantis was formed as a result of the merger between Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) and Groupe PSA, which was completed on January 16, 2021. The 1st Jeeps were made by both the Willys-Overland Company and Ford during World War II, where the 2 companies were both awarded contracts to produce the military vehicle in 1941, but Wills-Overland's design was chosen as the standard Jeep design. Ford's version of the Jeep was called the Ford GPW (General Purpose Willys), and discontinued.

Chrysler bought Dodge in 1928, and Chrysler was acquired by the Italian company Fiat S.p.A on June 10, 2009, where it renamed Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) in 2014 as it merged with Chrysler Group LLC. (In 2009, Chrysler was a separate company, as Chrysler Group LLC did not yet exist.). Then on January 16, 2021, FCA and the French automaker Groupe PSA merged and renamed themselves Stellantis (both companies announced on Dec. 18, 2019, that they had agreed to the terms of a binding $50 billion merger, and on July 16, 2020, both companies announced the new company name will be Stellantis.). Stellantis became the 3rd largest car maker company, behind Volkswagen and Toyota.

Daimler-Benz (Mercedes-Benz) bought Chrysler in 1998 (renamed DaimlerChrysler AG), then sold Chrysler to a private equity firm in 2007, to Cerberus Capital Management.

GMC was founded in 1901 (as Rapid Motor Vehicle Company), Chevrolet was founded in 1911 by 2 men. GMC was merged with the Reliance Motor Company to form General Motors Truck Company in 1911.GMC became a division of General Motors in 1912, while Chevrolet became a division of General Motors in 1917.

Lincoln was founded in 1917, and got acquired by Ford in 1922. Since then, Lincoln has operated as the luxury vehicle brand under the Ford umbrella.

General Motors was the largest global automaker by annual vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years, from 1931, when it overtook Ford Motor Company, until 2008 when it was overtaken by Toyota. As of Nov. 2014, Hyundai is the world's 3rd largest, in terms of production, behind Toyota and Volkswagen. Then in 2016, Volkswagen surpassed Toyota, largely due to sales in China.

However, just because Volkswagen makes the most cars does not make it the most profitable. In Jan. 2017, the company announced they recently agreed to pay $22 billion in settlements and plead guilty to criminal charges in the U.S. that it rigged diesel cars with software to cheat emissions regulations. 6 executives were charged.

Volkswagen sold 10.31 million cars worlwide in 2016 (with 3.98 million in China), which is 3.8% increase from previous year, while Toyota announced it had sold 10.18 million.

Note: car names are as follows: make, then model. So Toyota Camry, Nissan Altima, the 1st word is the make, the 2nd word the model. Typically, no 2 makes have the same model name.

SUVs often offer 4-wheel drive or all-wheel drive capability. Minivans are also known as MPVs (Multi-Purpose Vehicles) often have a sliding door and typically offer 3 rows of seating. Sedans are also referred to as saloons, have a separate trunk space, and are the most fuel-efficient, but mainly due to weighing less.

SUVs are often 4-wheel drive only, whereas minivans and sedans are usally 4-wheel or 2-wheel drive. The % of SUVs being 4-wheel is a lot higher than for minivans and sedans.

Typically no. For example, a make like Honda may offer models such as the Civic and Accord, which are sedans, as well as models like the CR-V and Pilot, which are SUVs.

3. What are typically the cheapest SUVs and what are typically the most expensive sedans?

Generally, entry-level compact SUVs and subcompact SUVs tend to have lower starting prices compared to larger SUVs. Some examples of relatively affordable SUVs include the Honda CR-V, Toyota RAV4, Ford Escape, Nissan Rogue, and Hyundai Tucson.

The most expensive sedans are often luxury or high-performance models from prestigious brands. Luxury sedans like the Mercedes-Benz S-Class, BMW 7 Series, Audi A8, and Lexus LS are known for their advanced features, refined interiors, and powerful engines. High-performance sedans from brands like Porsche, Aston Martin, and Bentley can also come with hefty price tags. Additionally, limited edition or exclusive models from luxury brands can further drive up the price of sedans.

Some of the cheapest sedans, are Hyundai Accent, Kia Rio, Nissan Versa, Chevrolet Sonic, Ford Fiesta, Toyota Yaris, Honda Fit, Mitsubishi Mirage, Volkswagen Jetta, and Subaru Impreza.

Electric SUV: the Tesla Model X, an all-electric SUV, was 1st introduced in 2015. It features falcon-wing doors and offers an all-electric range of over 300 miles (482 kilometers).

Electric Minivan: there has not been 1 yet. The closest thing is the Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid, although not fully electric, is a plug-in hybrid minivan that was 1st introduced in 2016. It combines an electric motor with a gasoline engine and offers an all-electric range of around 32 miles (51 kilometers).

Electric Sedan: in terms of success, the Tesla Model S, a luxury all-electric sedan, was introduced in 2012. It has been a significant milestone in the electric vehicle industry. However, for 1s that were not as successful, the GM EV1 was an electric car produced and leased by General Motors from 1996 to 1999. It was the 1st mass-produced and purpose-designed electric vehicle of the modern era from a major automaker and the 1st GM car designed to be an electric vehicle from the outset

Hybrid Minivan: the Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid, introduced in 2016, was 1 of the 1st hybrid minivans available. It combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor for increased fuel efficiency.

Hybrid Sedan: the Toyota Prius is often credited as the 1st mainstream hybrid sedan. The 1st-generation Prius was launched in Japan in 1997 and made its way to the U.S. in 2000.

The 1st all-electric pick-up truck to gain significant attention and popularity is the Tesla Cybertruck, which was unveiled in 2019. It features an all-electric powertrain and distinctive angular design.

The 1st hybrid pick-up trucks, 1 notable example is the Ford F-150 Hybrid. The hybrid version of the popular Ford F-150 truck was introduced in 2021. It combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor to enhance fuel efficiency and offer electric power assistance.

The majority of station wagons and hatchbacks are typically offered in 2-wheel drive. Between hatchbacks, station wagons, and minivans, hatchbacks are typically the cheapest, as well as having the best fuel efficiency, and are typically the smallest and lightest. They often have more aerodynamic designs and are built on compact or subcompact platforms, which further enhances their fuel efficiency.

Electric station wagon: the Tesla Model S, introduced in 2012, is often considered 1 of the 1st electric luxury sedans but can also be categorized as a "liftback" or "fastback" model. While not a traditional station wagon, its five-door design and generous cargo space make it comparable to a station wagon in terms of practicality and functionality.

Electric hatchback: the Nissan Leaf, introduced in 2010, is widely recognized as 1 of the 1st mass-market electric vehicles. It is a compact hatchback that offers all-electric propulsion and has become 1 of the most popular electric cars worldwide.

Hybrid station wagon: the Toyota Prius V, introduced in 2011, is often considered 1 of the 1st hybrid vehicles that can be classified as a station wagon. It is a larger and more spacious variant of the popular Toyota Prius hybrid, offering increased cargo capacity and versatility.

Hybrid hatchback: the Toyota Prius (without a V), introduced in 1997, is widely recognized as 1 of the 1st hybrid vehicles available on the market. While it is commonly classified as a compact sedan, its body style can be considered a hatchback due to its rear liftgate design. The Prius became a pioneering model for hybrid technology and has remained 1 of the most popular hybrid cars globally.

According to a 2023 article, tracking is available on most cars from 2015 onwards. Here are a few notable milestones in the development of GPS systems in cars:

Etak Navigator (1985): was 1 of the earliest in-car navigation systems. It used a combination of GPS technology and digital maps stored on digital cartridges to provide turn-by-turn directions, on a display screen.

Mazda Eunos Cosmo (1990): was 1 of the 1st cars to feature an onboard GPS navigation system as a factory option. It utilized GPS technology for navigation and had a built-in display screen.

General Motors OnStar (1996): General Motors introduced OnStar in 1996 as an in-vehicle communication and navigation system. While primarily known for its emergency and concierge services, OnStar also included GPS-based navigation capabilities.

Toyota Prius (1997): The 2nd-generation Toyota Prius, introduced in 2003, was 1 of the 1st mass-produced hybrid vehicles to include a GPS navigation system as a standard feature. This helped popularize built-in navigation systems in eco-friendly vehicles.

2 main types of internal combustion engines used in vehicles: gasoline engines and diesel engines.

Gasoline engines ignite a mixture of fuel and air using a spark plug, while diesel engines compress the air in the combustion chamber to a high temperature, causing the fuel to ignite without a spark plug. In gasoline engines, the spark from the spark plug ignites the compressed fuel-air mixture, creating an explosion that pushes the pistons and generates power.

Diesel cars are a lot more popular in Europe than in the U.S., due to government marketing propaganda from the 1990s, so by 2005 as much as 50% of cars in Europe was diesel. Whereas in the U.S., less than 5% of cars were ICU in 2000 and 2010. However, diesel cars have dropped significantly in Europe after the 2015 Volkswagen scandal. Diesel car registrations in Europe dropped from 50% in 2015 to 36% in 2018.

In general, diesel engines tend to be more fuel efficient than gasoline engines, but are more expensive.

Diesel engines typically achieve higher fuel efficiency due to their higher compression ratios and the inherent energy density of diesel fuel. Diesel engines can extract more energy from each unit of fuel compared to gasoline engines, resulting in better fuel economy. Additionally, diesel fuel has a higher energy content per gallon compared to gasoline.

However, advancements in gasoline engine technology, such as direct injection and turbocharging, have improved the fuel efficiency of gasoline engines in recent years. Additionally, hybrid and electric powertrains are becoming more prevalent, offering even higher fuel efficiency or zero-emission driving.

Gasoline-powered SUVs typically feature either inline-four (4-cylinder), V6 (6-cylinder), or V8 (8-cylinder) engines.

No, gasoline engines primarily emit pollutants like carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and unburned hydrocarbons (HC). The catalytic converter used in gasoline engines is typically a 3-way catalyst (TWC) that contains a combination of catalyst materials, such as platinum, palladium, and rhodium, which is designed to simultaneously reduce CO, NOx, and HC emissions.

Diesel engines emit higher levels of particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The catalytic converter used in diesel engines is called a diesel particulate filter (DPF), which is specifically designed to trap and remove the particulate matter from the exhaust gases. The DPF works by capturing the PM on a porous filter and periodically regenerating it to prevent clogging. In addition to the DPF, diesel engines may also incorporate selective catalytic reduction (SCR) systems, which use a separate catalyst and a urea-based solution (commonly known as diesel exhaust fluid or DEF) to reduce NOx emissions.

DPFs are primarily composed of ceramic materials and metallic alloys. Ceramic material include: cordierite, silicon carbide, and aluminum titanate. Metallic alloys include: stainless steel, nickel-based, iron-chromium, and aluminum-based.

3. As diesel-engines do not use the same gasoline (they use diesel), what about engine oil?

For engine oil, diesel engines typically require oils with higher viscosity and different additives compared to gasoline engines. This is because diesel engines operate at higher compression ratios and temperatures, leading to different lubrication needs.

By June 2023, Cox Automotive reports the average listed price of a used vehicle is $26,969 (down 6.4% from 2022, $19,827 pre-covid). In 2018, 60% of used vehicles are selling for less than $20,000, compared to 30% in 2023. The average vehicle that is 7 years old with 75,000 miles is still selling for more than $20,000. The average price for a brand new EV is $53,438, down from $61,000 in Jan, down from $66,390 12 months ago, compared to ICU vehicles $48,600, according to Kelley Blue Book. Bloomberg predicts EV cars will be less than ICU vehicles before this decade ends.

The average price of a new car was $48,094 in Sept. 2022, compared to $30,570 in Jan. 2012. Car prices increased dramatically in 2021. 8% of new cars sell for under $20,000, compared to 38% pre-covid. Less than 1% of new cars sell for less than $20,000, with 8% in 2018, according to Edmunds.

For new cars that sell at $20,000 or less, from 2013-2016, 20% of new cars went for $20,000 or less. But by 2018, was 10%. This is largely due to 2 cars, the Toyota Camry and Honda Accord, that was going for the $20,000 range, dramatically increased in 2017 with their newer versions. Another reason, is the rise of SUVs. SUV sales went from 30% in 2009 to 51.5% in 2019.

The largest car dealership in the U.S.? (2023)
Ford, Chevrolet, and Ram Trucks are the largest automobile dealers in the United States in 2023 based on the number of locations. Ford has the most number of locations with 2,944 locations across 50 states and territories. Chevrolet has 2,903 and Ram Trucks has 2,466.

In 2023, drivers are spending more than $700/month for new cars, over $500 for used cars. Specifically, $716 and $526 for April 2023.

As of Q2 2021, average monthly car loan payments were $570/month for new, $430/month for used. Compared to Q2 2015, $480/month and $360/month.

As of Q4 2015, for the term distribution, 42% and 41.1% of loans for new and used vehicles are for 5-6 years, 29% and 16.4% are for 6-7 years, 20.8% and 23.6% are for 4-5 years, 3.8% and 11.3% for 3-4 years, and 3.1% and 5.8% for 2-3 years. This is not the same for leasing a vehicle.

Longer car loans are on the rise. For new car loans that are 6 years or longer: that was about 17% in 2000, hit 20% in 2002, it 40% in 2005, hit 50% in 2012, and hit 60% in 2015, and 65.7% in 2019.

As of June 2023, the average rate on a 5-year new car loan is now 6.87%, the highest since 2010, according to Bankrate. For used vehicles, 11.2%, at 5 years and 7 months. Compared to 2022, where the average rate on new cars was 4.1%.

-In Feb. 2023, Massachusetts attorney general resolved a settlement of $7.6 million against Toyota, alleging Toyota failed to give certain customers sufficient information about the calculation methods for deficiencies left on their loans after their cars were repossessed.
-In 2016, Toyota to pay $21.9 million to settle allegations that they discriminated against Black and Asian borrowers by charging them higher interest rates than Whites.
-From a 2017 Minnesota lawsuit, in 2018, the parent company of Chase Auto (JP Morgan Chase), and debt collector repossessor agreed to pay $3.25 million, for illegally repossessing customer vehicles from April 2013 to 2018, violating the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act.

The monthly average cost of car insurance for drivers in the U.S. is $168 for full coverage and $52 for minimum coverage (what is the difference between the 2, will be covered further down). This comes down to about $2000/year and $620/year, but that depends on the state. The cheapest states be Maine and Vermont, hitting around $1000/year and $230/year, with the most expensive being Florida and New York, hitting around $3000/year and $1350/year. This could be due in part to frequent claims for common losses, making drivers riskier to insure overall. Illinois sits at around $1800/year and $550/year.

Drivers with an at-fault accident on their driving record pay around 42% more for car insurance on average compared to drivers with a clean driving record. This average increase is even higher for drivers with a DUI conviction, at 93% more. Earning a speeding ticket conviction may be 1 of the most common driving infractions and, on average, it increases full coverage premiums by 21%, but every insurance carrier will have its own algorithm for determining rates.

Credit score is also a factor, drivers with poor credit pay nearly 73% more for full coverage car insurance compared to those with good credit. However, regulations in California, Hawaii, Massachusetts, and Michigan prohibit or severely limit auto insurers from using credit as a factor when setting rates.

In 2023, the average U.S. rate for full auto insurance surged to $2,019, a 24% increase from $1,633 in 2022 and a nearly 29% jump from $1,567 the previous year, according to Insurify, an insurance comparison shopping site. That amounts to roughly 3.4% of the median household income. Even a bare-bones policy required by states climbed to $1,154 per year in 2023. The national average cost of car insurance hit $2,314 per year ($193/month) for full coverage as of April 2024, according to a separate Bankrate database.

Record inflation, unprecedented supply chain issues and increased post-pandemic claims contributed to rising insurance rates in 2022. Although signs point to cooling inflation in 2023, Bankrate has found that rates are continuing to increase in 2023, due to factors like social inflation and increased claim severity. According to the Consumer Price Index, auto insurance rates rose 14.7% from January 2022 to January 2023.

What full coverage covers that minimum does not: you may be able to add medical payments coverage for you and any passengers in your vehicle from an accident, as well as towing and rental reimbursement on each vehicle. There is also collision and comprehensive insurance. Collision insurance covers your vehicle’s repairs after an accident, whereas comprehensive coverage covers your vehicle’s repairs after a non-collision incident, such as theft, vandalism, storm damage, and damage from striking an animal.

Motor vehicle crashes costed Americans an estimated $498 billion in 2021 (6.1 million car crashes, up from 3.8 million the previous year), which is an average $81,600 per car crash.

State Farm 16.0%
Geico 14.4%
Progressive 13.8%
Allstate 10.4%
USAA 6.0%
Liberty Mutual 5.1%
Farmers 4.8%
Nationwide 2.1%
American Family 2.1%
Travelers 2.0%
Total: >75% of all auto policys. This data is by March 2024.

In end of Aug. 2023, Farmers Insurance announced to lay off 2,400 workers across entire company. Geico slashed their advertising spend by $800 million, to $1.2 billion in 2022, from the year prior, a 38% decrease.

Connect the cables: take 1 end of the jumper cable and attach the red clamp (+) to the positive terminal of the dead battery. Then take the other red clamp and attach it to the positive terminal of the functioning battery.

Ground connection: take 1 end of the black cable and attach the clamp to the negative terminal of the functioning battery. Finally, attach the other black clamp to an unpainted metal surface of the vehicle with the dead battery. This serves as the ground connection and should be away from the battery and any moving parts

After starting the functioning vehicle and then the dead 1, to disconnect, remove them in reverse order (start with the black clamp from the grounded surface (previously dead car), then the black clamp from the functioning battery, followed by the red clamp from the functioning battery, and finally, the red clamp from the previously dead battery).

An octane rating determines how resistant a fuel will be to combustion, because engines requires gasoline to explode at exactly the right time. In ICU engine, fuel and air combine inside a cylinder chamber where they are compressed by a piston and ignited by a spark plug. An engine consists of several cylinders all connected to the same crank shaft.

In 1927, it was determined 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane) has excellent burning characteristics, and given a rating of 100 on the octane rating scale, with n-heptane as 0. So in gas stations with 3 choices, 87 corresponds to regular octane, 90 as plus, and 94 as premium. Compounds like benzene have octane rating of 106, but are banned for health reasons. You also see a (R+M)/2, which stands for research octane rating, and motor octane rating. The 1st refers to how fuel burns in a cold engine, the 2nd when going down a highway. So (R+M)/2 is the average of the 2 types of ratings. In the U.S. the price differences between regular and premium, tend to be the highest near the Great Lakes, and lowest near the west coast.

Although several things may happen, the biggest 1 appears to be the battery may lose its charge and eventually die. This is particularly common in modern vehicles that have more electronic components that continue to draw power even when the car is not in use.

13. Why is the battery of a flashlight still usable if you don't use it for a year, but the battery of a car is not?

Parasitic Drain: cars have various electrical systems that may continue to draw a small amount of power even when the car is not in use, resulting in parasitic drain on the battery (clock and radio memory, engine control module (ECM) and vehicle computers for modern cars, etc.). Over time, this can lead to the depletion of the battery charge. In contrast, flashlights typically do not have significant parasitic drain.

When you start a car, the main purpose is to engage the engine and get it running. However, starting the engine also benefits the battery in several ways:

Charging: the alternator, driven by the engine, generates electricity and charges the battery while the engine is running. This replenishes the energy used during the starting process and any electrical loads in the vehicle.

Reversing discharge: when starting a car, the battery experiences a temporary discharge as it provides the necessary power to turn over the engine. Once the engine is running, the alternator immediately begins to recharge the battery, effectively reversing this discharge and bringing the battery back to its optimal state.

The car's alternator generates electricity through the principle of electromagnetic induction. Here's a simplified explanation of how it works:

Mechanical power: the alternator is driven by a belt connected to the engine's crankshaft. As the engine runs, it rotates the crankshaft, which in turn spins the alternator's rotor.

Rotor and stator: inside the alternator, there is a rotor and a stator. The rotor consists of a spinning magnet or electromagnet, while the stator surrounds the rotor and contains a set of stationary windings (copper wire coils).

Magnetic field: as the rotor spins, it creates a rotating magnetic field around the stator. This magnetic field is constantly changing due to the rotation of the rotor.

Induced voltage: the changing magnetic field induces a voltage in the windings of the stator, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This voltage is in AC since it varies in direction and magnitude as the magnetic field changes.

Rectification: the AC voltage generated in the stator windings is then converted into direct current (DC) using a set of diodes in the alternator. The diodes act as a 1-way valve, allowing the current to flow in a single direction.

Battery charging: the DC output from the alternator is used to charge the vehicle's battery and power the electrical systems of the car. The voltage is regulated by the vehicle's voltage regulator to ensure it stays within the appropriate range.

By harnessing the mechanical energy from the engine, the alternator converts it into electrical energy, providing a continuous supply of power to the battery and electrical components of the car while the engine is running.

Cars and light-duty trucks showed significant fuel efficiency improvements from 1975-1987, when the fuel economy reached a peak of 22 miles/gallon. After 1987, it started to decline, reaching 19.3 miles/gallon in 2004. From the National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, EPA.

By using on-board diagnostics. In 1986, Bosch introduced the Controller Area Network (CAN) standard for automobile manufactures, in order to facilitate communication between microcontrollers on automobiles. The CAN standard was designed as a multi-master broadcast serial bus, used to interconnect electronic control units (ECUs). At the physical layer, frame bits are encoded in a non-return to zero (NRZ) format over the wire, and facilitates the use of automatic collision detection with arbitration. Essentially, any message sent out by any node on a CAN network will be seen by all other nodes.

In 1996 a federal law took effect requiring most new consumer vehicles in the U.S. to have standards-based On Board Diagnostics, called OBD-II. The OBD regulations were put in place by the EPA for monitoring emissions related components, but the systems have evolved to be much more capable. The good thing about OBD-II was it defined a limited set of network types that a car maker could implement for the emissions related diagnostics, which meant that tools to interface with those networks could also become standardized and inexpensive. Called scan-tools, they come in full-featured versions with built-in software/display/buttons, and dumb versions that must be connected to a PC/tablet/phone to be useful.

In 2008, all cars sold in the U.S. are required to use the ISO 15765-4 signaling standard (a variant of the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus).

OBD-II is an improvement over OBD-I in both capability and standardization. The OBD-II standard specifies the type of diagnostic connector and its pinout, the electrical signalling protocols available, and the messaging format. It also provides a candidate list of vehicle parameters to monitor along with how to encode the data for each. There is a pin in the connector that provides power for the scan tool from the vehicle battery, which eliminates the need to connect a scan tool to a power source separately. However, some technicians might still connect the scan tool to an auxiliary power source to protect data in the unusual event that a vehicle experiences a loss of electrical power due to a malfunction.

The OB-II diagnostic connector.
The OBD-II specification provides for a standardized hardware interface — the female 16-pin (2x8) J1962 connector, where type A is used for 12-volt vehicles and type B for 24-volt vehicles. Unlike the OBD-I connector, which was sometimes found under the hood of the vehicle, the OBD-II connector is required to be within 2 feet (0.61 m) of the steering wheel (unless an exemption is applied for by the manufacturer, in which case it is still somewhere within reach of the driver).

Cars with modern fuel injection systems can be driven by simply starting the engine without the car warming up.

These are some companies that make car engines.

Cummins has supplied engines to various car manufacturers, particularly in the heavy-duty truck and commercial vehicle segment. They have collaborated with companies like Dodge (Ram Trucks) for their diesel pickup trucks.

AVL has worked with numerous car manufacturers globally, providing engine development and testing services. They have collaborated with brands like Audi, BMW, Volvo, and many others for engine development and optimization.

Mahle supplies engines and engine components to several car manufacturers. They have partnered with companies like Volkswagen Group, BMW, General Motors, and others for their engine needs.

Ilmor Engineering has a history of collaborating with Mercedes-Benz in the development of engines for motorsports, particularly in Formula One racing. Ilmor Engineering has been involved in the design and manufacturing of high-performance engines used by Mercedes-Benz's Formula One team. However, in terms of production vehicles, Mercedes-Benz primarily develops and manufactures their own engines.

Cosworth has a rich motorsport heritage and has worked with various car manufacturers for performance-oriented projects. They have collaborated with companies like Subaru for engine development in performance models like the Subaru Impreza WRX STI.

1. What 2 car makes have used engines from the same company?

Mazda has used engines sourced from other manufacturers in some of their vehicles. For instance, Mazda has collaborated with Ford, Toyota, and others to share engine technologies and platforms.

Subaru has partnered with Toyota on various projects, including engine sharing. The Subaru BRZ and Toyota 86 sports cars, for example, feature a jointly developed engine. The Subaru BRZ and Toyota 86 are equipped with a horizontally opposed 4-cylinder engine, which is designed and manufactured by Subaru.

Aston Martin has a history of using engines sourced from other manufacturers. In the past, they have used engines from Ford, Mercedes-AMG, and others.

Volvo Cars, now owned by Geely, has utilized engines developed by other companies, including engines from Ford and Geely.

Although Ford owns Lincoln, many Ford and Lincoln models share engine options and technologies, allowing for shared resources and cost efficiencies. For example, both Ford and Lincoln offer vehicles with the EcoBoost engine lineup, which includes turbocharged engines designed to provide a balance of power and fuel efficiency.

2. What car makes, make their own engine?

Some companies that predominantly only made their own engines include Honda, Toyota, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, and Ferrari.

Some companies do both. They make their own, and collaborate with others. Hyundai and Kia have their own engine manufacturing capabilities and produce a significant portion of their engines in-house. They have invested in research and development to develop their own engine technologies and have established engine manufacturing facilities. However, they also collaborate with other companies and suppliers for certain engines and components. For example, Hyundai and Kia have worked with companies like Mitsubishi, Nuvis, and Ilmor Engineering for specific engine models or technologies.

3. Do engine-companies, also make alternators?

No. Non-car companies that make engines, do not make alternators. Examples of alternator companies are:

Bosch is a well-known manufacturer of automotive components, including alternators. They supply alternators to various car manufacturers worldwide. Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Ford, General Motors (GM), Toyota, Honda, Nissan, Volvo

Denso is a leading global supplier of automotive components, including alternators. They supply alternators to several car makes, including Toyota, Honda, Ford, and others.

Valeo is a multinational automotive supplier that produces alternators among other automotive components. They supply alternators to various car manufacturers globally.

Mitsubishi Electric is a renowned manufacturer of electrical components, including alternators. They supply alternators to different car makes, including Mitsubishi Motors.

Hitachi Automotive Systems is a supplier of automotive components, including alternators. They provide alternators to various car manufacturers worldwide.

4. What car companies make both their engines and alternators?

Some examples include GM, Ford, Toyota, Honda, and BMW.

In 2022, the top car rental companies were Enterprise at 57%, Avis Budget 21%, and Hertz 17%. Hertz was the only 1 to offer EV rentals. On Oct. 25, 2021, Hertz publicly announced it intended to buy 100,000 Teslas, mostly Model 3 sedans. By the end of 2022, Hertz had 49,266 EVs (9%) globally. As of Dec. 2022, 65-70% of the EVs were utilized by rideshare drivers, according to Deutsche Bank. However, if an EV got an a car accident, the price to fix an EV was about double than a ICU engine, so Hertz eventually increased selectivity for EV rentals.

Between Nov. 2020 and Nov. 2023, the percentage of dealers selling new EVs grew from 16.5% to 55.1%. Used car dealers offering EVs haven’t seen as much growth, but their numbers also rose, from 17.1% to 29.4%. This was according to iSeeCars that analyzed the inventories of over 82,000 new and used car dealers from that 3-year period.

While California has the highest percent of new EV market share, Delaware, Rhode Island, Hawaii, and Maine have a higher percentage of car dealers offering new EVs. Montana, Wyoming and Mississippi have the smallest percentage of new car EV dealers.

Hydrogen cars work by storing hydrogen gas in carbon-fiber high pressure tanks, which can hold enough hydrogen for about 300 miles or more. The formula is O₂ + 4H⁺ + 4e^- -> 2H₂O + 1.23V, but research is being sought to replace platinum in fuel cells, as there is not enough platinum in the world to transfer into hydrogen cars.

Toyota's 1st hydrogen vehicle was the Mirai, introduced in 2014. The other fuel cell vehicle is the Hyundai Nexo. So far, only slightly more than 56,000 fuel cell passenger vehicles have sold to date worldwide. As of May 2023, the Toyota Mirai starts at $49,500 for the base XLE trim and the loaded Limited model begins at $66,000. The Mirai achieves 60 mph in 9.2 seconds, which is a full second slower than the Hyundai Nexo, as of Jan. 2022.

-The Corvette is the only 2-seat sports car produced by a major U.S. auto manufacturer.
-Acura was the 1st luxury division established by a Japanese automaker, Honda, launched on March 27, 1986. For Toyota, that's Lexus (Lexus LS in 1989), and for Nissan, that's Infiniti (Nov. 8, 1989). Almost all models of Lexus are imported from Japan, with the only being manufactured in the U.S. is the Lexus ES 350, which started in the plant in Georgetown, Kentucky, in 2015.
-In 2016, Kia Motors model reliability was ranked 1st in the U.S. by J.D. Power and Associates, becoming the 1st non-luxury automaker since 1989 to top that list.
-The Mazda MX-5 was initially certified by Guinness World Records as the world's "Best selling 2-seater sports car" when production reached 531,890 units in May 2000. Guinness updated the record when production passed 700,000, 800,000, and 900,000 units on Feb. 4, 2011.
-Odometer fraud by scammers: average used vehicle prices increased from $19,872 in Dec. 2019, to $27,077 in Dec. 2022, due to an estimated odometer fraud. About 10.5 million cars in the U.S. are estimated to be a victim of odometer fraud.
-The U.S. is the largest destination for British cars, accounting for more than a quarter of U.K. auto exports in 2024, according to the Office for National Statistics.

Lucid's biggest investor by far is Saudi Arabia's sovereign wealth fund, called the Public Investment Fund or PIF. PIF has invested a total of $6.4 billion in Lucid since 2018, including $1 billion in March. It currently owns about 60% of the automaker. The Saudi government has also supported Lucid in other ways. In 2022, its Ministry of Finance agreed to buy at least 50,000, and possibly as many as 100,000, vehicles from Lucid over the following 10 years, with deliveries expected to ramp up significantly in 2025. Lucid had $5 billion on hand as of the end of March. It has already raised $1 billion in 2024, on top of the $3 billion it raised in May 2023 and the $1.5 billion it raised in Dec. 2022.

After the auto world saw in July 2015 how hackers could remotely control a Jeep Cherokee as someone was driving it, automakers changed gears on how mechanics can access a car's computer (details of this at the end.

If a manufacturer requires a $40,000-a-year subscription, independent auto shops are not going to service those cars because they don’t have enough volume of that specific vehicle to afford the subscription. The subscription is for the software to use what's called a scan tool. A mechanic hooks it up to the gateway computer in a consumer's car. The gateway computer manages all of the car’s various electrical systems. Once in place, the scan tool reads the various codes to tell the technician what needs to be fixed. Depending on what type of car, a monthly subscription fee can cost usually $65 a month to $40,000 a year.

Mechanics also have to purchase the scan tool itself. Dealer technicians tend to use one that's made by the automaker. While independent shops may use that too or 1 that was not made by the car manufacturer. That’s called an after-market scan tool. The purchase price for this is typically $4,000 to $5,000 for the tool itself. But yearly subscriptions just for generic information is about $1,500 a year.

The scan tool is also called a universal tool because it can work on more than 1 type of car, but still not all of them. This means mechanics may need to purchase several scan tools depending on how many different makes and models they work on. Another expense is the time and money many shops also need to spend to get their technicians trained on how to use the equipment."

Automotive & Maintenance Repair Association (AMRA) works with independent shops, auto regulators and legislators to create repair standards to help make sure consumers are not paying for service work their cars don’t need. "The automotive aftermarket is about 200,000 shops nationwide," according to Jeff Cox, president of the AMRA.

According to several different consumer automotive experts for this story, the newer cars with gateway computers were built starting around 2017-2018, but do not include all makes and models. Right now, you can find them in certain Chrysler, Jeep, Ram, Dodge and Nissan vehicles, with Hyundai and Kia to be next.

While you can still take your car to a local shop for something basic like an oil change, other simple repairs might not be so simple. "Depending on the vehicle, they need to access the gateway for even simple things. Something like replacing a power window module," Cox said. Part of the reason why these easy jobs can now be hard to do has to do with how good the mechanic’s computer skills are. Now,you need to know how the computers on the vehicle are communicating with each other and that’s a segment we refer to as vehicle communication.

Students start using diagnostic scan tools in their 1st course. They use that scan tool in all of their courses as everything on the vehicle is controlled by electronics and electronic control modules.

National Automotive Safety Task Force (NASTF) is an organization that helps technicians who are having trouble accessing the gateway computers, even when they have the right equipment and training. NASTF was designed by the automakers and the independent aftermarket as the mediator, the moderator, between them. The technical entity that could explain to each side what the other one was trying to accomplish.

Legislation regarding this issue has been introduced on both the federal and state levels. The Repair Act was introduced in Congress last year. Its goal is to require manufacturers to let consumers be able to access data from their cars so they can have them repaired at independent shops. A similar bill was also introduced in the Illinois Senate in January. Until either bill passes, consumers may be in for a rough ride.

The 2015 Jeep Cherokee incident refers to a cybersecurity demonstration by researchers Charlie Miller and Chris Valasek, who showed that they could remotely hack and control a Jeep Cherokee while it was being driven. This demonstration revealed serious vulnerabilities in the car's Uconnect infotainment system, which is connected to the internet, and how it could be exploited to take control of various vehicle systems.

During the demonstration, they took control of the car driven by journalist Andy Greenberg of Wired magazine. As he was driving, they disabled the car’s transmission and cut the brakes, demonstrating the severe risk this vulnerability posed to driver safety. Fiat Chrysler (the manufacturer of the Jeep Cherokee) responded by recalling 1.4 million vehicles and issuing a software update to patch the vulnerability.

Automotive manufacturers collaborate with various LiDAR companies to enhance their vehicles' sensing capabilities. Here's an overview of partnerships involving Luminar, Velodyne, and Aeva:

In 2019, Hyundai Mobis partnered with Velodyne to incorporate LiDAR technology. (Hyundai Mobis makes car parts for Hyundai, Kia, and Genesis.). Velodyne is now called Ouster.

In 2020, Volvo has partnered with Luminar to integrate LiDAR into their vehicles, aiming to enhance autonomous driving capabilities. Volvo announced that its next-generation electric XC90 SUV, set to be released in 2022, would come equipped with Luminar's LiDAR sensors as standard hardware. However, Volvo delayed the launch of its EX90 SUV, which uses its lidars, to late 2024. Volvo includes Polestar.

In April 2022, Nissan announced they will Luminar's technology in all their cars by 2030.

In 2023, May Mobility chose Aeva's technology for its next-generation Toyota Sienna autonomous transit vehicles, planning to equip thousands of vehicles through 2028.

In 2024, Daimler Truck and its subsidiary Torc Robotics selected Aeva's 4D LiDAR technology for their autonomous vehicle program, with production beginning in 2026.

Some Jeep makes use LiDAR, the Jeep Grand Wagoneer and Dodge Charger. GM and Cadillac also uses LiDAR.

Luminar differentiates itself from the other companies by using infrared light at the 1,550 nm wavelength, which is much higher than the wavelengths used by its main competitors. It claims that higher wavelength enables its Iris lidar to "see" more objects at a longer range and higher resolutions than other lidar systems. Luminar also stands out a bit from others by manufacturing most of its own components, which are customized for its own chips and software, instead of using off-the-shelf parts.

And all the above car makes that use LiDAR, also use radar, camera, and ultrasonic.

All the companies that use radar, use frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) technology, operating in the mm-frequency, which is the 77 GHz band (76 to 81 GHz).

Mercedes-Benz combines radar and cameras for its Drive Pilot system.
Ford uses radar for its Co-Pilot360 technology.
Volkswagen employs radar for adaptive cruise control and emergency braking.
Nissan uses radar for its ProPILOT Assist.

Around 1999, Mercedes-Benz with Distronic, with the companies Bosch and Continental.
Early 2000s, BMW, with Continental and Aptiv.
Early 2000s, Audo, with Bosch and Valeo.
Mid-2000s, Nissan, with Hitachi, Bosch, and Denso.
Mid-2000s, Volvo, with Bosch and Veoneer.
Around 2004, GM, to Cadillac XLR, with Bosch, Continental, and Veoneer.
Around 2006, Volkswagen, with Bosch and Continental.
Around 2006, to Ford Edge and Lincoln, with Bosch, Aptiv, and Continental.
Early 2010s, Hyundai and Kia, with Continental, Aptiv, and Mando.
Around 2014, Tesla, to 2021, then dropped out to cameras, and reintroducing in 2023, with Bosch.
Late 2010s, Subaru, with Continental.

In Japan, Toyota and Honda both were around 2003, with Toyota's Celsior (Japan's version of Lexus LS 430) with Denso, and Honda's Inspire (Japan's version of the Acura TL) with Hitachi and Denso.

All car companies all include cameras now. However, the ones that are used for collision safety include:

Subaru uses its EyeSight system, which is camera-based, for adaptive cruise control and collision avoidance.
BMW incorporates cameras along with other sensors in its Driving Assistance Professional Package.

Toyota, Honda, and Nissan were the 1st cars to have ultrasonic only, by the early 1990s.

The 1st car to have both radar, and ultrasonic, is the Mercedes-Benz 1995 S-class, which introduced Parktronic (for ultrasonic parking sensors), and the 1999 S-class, which introduced Distronic, which was the world's 1st radar-based adaptive cruise control system. Toyota, Honda, and BMW followed in the early 2000s.

-Ford, a big player in Europe from the early 1900s, has seen sales in the region fall sharply, from 1.26 million vehicles in 2005 to just 426,000 in 2024, according to data from the European Automobile Manufacturers' Association (ACEA).
-German manufacturers have also carved out a strong presence in Japan's luxury market. Mercedes-Benz sold more than 53,000 vehicles in 2024, making it the most popular foreign brand, followed by BMW at more than 35,000.

The unfortunate truth about Toyota's hydrogen V8 engine:
Toyota partnered with Yamaha to develop a hydrogen powered V8 engine, derived from the 5.0 L V8 used on the Lexus RC F. The engine produces 450 horsepower by burning hydrogen, and thus has no direct carbon emissions. From the Yamaha Press Release: "In November 2021, the 5 companies of Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Subaru Corporation, Toyota Motor Corporation, Mazda Motor Corporation, and Yamaha Motor jointly announced they would begin discussions for conducting collaborative research into possible avenues for expanding the range of fuel options for internal combustion engines in the quest for carbon neutrality. And at the announcement venue, the V8 hydrogen engine shown above, which was developed by Yamaha for Toyota, was unveiled to the public. The unit is based on the 5.0-liter engine in the Lexus RC F luxury sport coupe, with modifications made to the injectors, cylinder heads, intake manifold, and more, and delivers up to 450 hp at 6,800 rpm and a maximum 540 Nm of torque of at 3,600 rpm."

Toyota Mirai has 5.6 kg of H₂ stored on board (142.2 liters of H storage tanks or ~37.5 gallons), so 357 miles.

So what if Lexus RC F, instead of having 17.4 gallons of gasoline, had hydrogen? (Hydrogen will have to be at 10,000 psi or 700 bar). Toyota's Mirai 5.6 kg/H₂ put in 142.2 L = .04 kg/L of H₂. With 66 L of available space, that's 2.6 kg H₂ available to use. How far can this hydrogen take us?

This means the Lexus RCF's 19 mpg roughly translates to 19 miles/kg with H₂. 19 * 2.6 kg/H₂ = 50 miles for Lexus RCF... But we wants cars to have 300 miles for range, not 50 miles. This makes hydrogen very inefficient, for a 17.4 gallon tank. To get to 300 miles, you would need a 104-gallon sized tank.

Now remember, this hydrogen is stored as a gas. You can certainly store hydrogen as a liquid, as liquid hydrogen can store 77% more hydrogen (.071 kg/L versus .020 kg/L at 10,000 psi) [liquid hydrogen's density].

But to store liquid hydrogen, at atmospheric pressure, would require -253 C. This ironically has been done. In 2006, BMW unveiled the Hydrogen 7 (sedan), so the tank was super-well insulated. But after 17 hours, enough energy starts to seep into the hydrogen tank, causing the hydrogen to start to boil, and then the pressure has to be released (else you're building a bomb). So after 17 hours, the tank starts to discharge the hydrogen gas... And according to an article on Wired, the fuel is completely gone in 10 to 12 days. And so, there's a quote from the manual kit that parking in enclosed spaces is not allowed (so can't park in your garage). However, there is still a catalytic convert that mixed the hydrogen with oxygen, so you can get water vented out, but still, you lose fuel (unless the garage is at -253 C).